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| How does the chemical composition of the cell membrane facilitate its function as a selective barrier? | What would happen to a cell's protein export process if the Golgi apparatus was rendered non-functional? |
| Why are mitochondria and chloroplasts cited as evidence for the Endosymbiotic Theory? | Contrast the genetic outcomes of Mitosis and Meiosis. |
| How does the structure of DNA (antiparallel strands) affect the process of DNA replication? | In the context of transcription, what is the role of the promoter region? |
| Explain the difference between incomplete dominance and codominance using phenotype examples. | Why are males more likely to express X-linked recessive disorders than females? |
| Proteins synthesized in the Rough ER would not be properly modified (glycosylated), sorted, or packaged into secretory vesicles, preventing their delivery to the cell membrane or extracellular environment. | The phospholipid bilayer's amphipathic nature (hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails) prevents polar/charged molecules from passing through the hydrophobic core without specific protein channels, while allowing small nonpolar molecules to diffuse freely. |
| Mitosis produces two genetically identical diploid (2n) somatic cells for growth and repair, whereas Meiosis produces four genetically unique haploid (n) gametes for sexual reproduction. | Both possess their own circular DNA, double membranes, and 70S ribosomes, and they replicate via binary fission—traits characteristic of prokaryotes rather than eukaryotes. |
| The promoter is a specific DNA sequence where RNA polymerase binds to initiate the transcription of a gene into mRNA; it determines where and in which direction transcription begins. | DNA polymerase can only add nucleotides in the 5' to 3' direction, resulting in continuous synthesis on the leading strand and discontinuous synthesis (Okazaki fragments) on the lagging strand. |
| Males are hemizygous (XY), meaning they only possess one X chromosome; if they inherit a recessive allele on that chromosome, they lacks a second X chromosome to carry a dominant masking allele. | In incomplete dominance, the heterozygote shows an intermediate blend (e.g., pink flowers from red and white parents). In codominance, both alleles are expressed fully and simultaneously (e.g., AB blood type). |
| How does the law of independent assortment contribute to genetic variation? | Identify the functional significance of the redundancy in the genetic code (the 'wobble' effect). |
| What are the five conditions required for a population to remain in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium? | Distinguish between homologous structures and analogous structures in evolutionary biology. |
| Why is 'survival of the fittest' an incomplete description of natural selection? | Describe the difference between allopatric and sympatric speciation. |
| How would a sudden decrease in genetic diversity affect a population's long-term survival? | Explain why only about 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next. |
| Multiple codons can code for the same amino acid, which provides a buffer against point mutations, as a change in the third nucleotide often results in the same protein product (silent mutation). | During Metaphase I of meiosis, homologous chromosome pairs align randomly at the metaphase plate, ensuring that the inheritance of one trait does not influence the inheritance of another (provided the genes are on different chromosomes). |
| Homologous structures share a common ancestry but may have different functions (e.g., whale flipper and human arm). Analogous structures have similar functions due to convergent evolution but do not share a common ancestor (e.g., bird wing and butterfly wing). | 1. Large population size; 2. Random mating; 3. No mutations; 4. No gene flow (migration); 5. No natural selection. |
| Allopatric speciation occurs when populations are geographically isolated. Sympatric speciation occurs within the same geographic area, often through polyploidy or habitat differentiation. | Natural selection is not just about survival; it is specifically about differential reproductive success—passing advantageous alleles to the next generation. |
| Most energy is lost as metabolic heat, utilized for the organism's own life processes (respiration, movement), or remains in indigestible organic matter (feces/detritus). | Reduced genetic variation (often due to a bottleneck effect) limits the population's ability to adapt to environmental changes or disease, increasing the risk of extinction. |
| In an ecosystem, what is the 'carrying capacity' and what happens when a population exceeds it? | Compare and contrast mutualism and commensalism. |
| Define the role of a keystone species in an ecosystem. | What is the primary difference between primary and secondary ecological succession? |
| How do the circulatory and respiratory systems work together to maintain homeostasis? | What is the function of the nephron in the human kidney regarding waste management? |
| Explain the mechanism of a negative feedback loop using blood glucose regulation as an example. | Compare the inflammatory response of the innate immune system to the adaptive immune response. |
| Both are symbiotic relationships. In mutualism, both species benefit (+/+). In commensalism, one benefits while the other is neither helped nor harmed (+/0). | Carrying capacity (K) is the maximum population size an environment can sustain based on limiting resources. Exceeding K typically leads to resource depletion and a subsequent population crash or increased death rate. |
| Primary succession begins in an environment with no soil (e.g., volcanic rock), while secondary succession occurs in an area where an existing community has been cleared but the soil remains intact (e.g., after a forest fire). | A keystone species has a disproportionately large effect on its environment relative to its abundance; its removal often causes a collapse of the entire ecosystem's structure. |
| The nephron filters blood under pressure, reabsorbs essential nutrients and water, and secretes waste products to form urine, thus regulating fluid and electrolyte balance. | The respiratory system facilitates gas exchange (O2 in, CO2 out) in the lungs, while the circulatory system transports these gases between the lungs and the body's tissues via the blood. |
| The innate response is non-specific and immediate (e.g., swelling, phagocytosis). The adaptive response is specific to a pathogen, takes longer to activate, and creates 'memory' cells for future immunity. | When blood glucose rises, the pancreas releases insulin to lower it; when it drops too low, the pancreas releases glucagon to raise it. The response 'negates' the initial stimulus to maintain a set point. |
| How does a neuron transmit an impulse across a synapse? | Why is the surface area-to-volume ratio a limiting factor for cell size? |
| Predict the effect of a protease inhibitor on the function of a lysosome. | Contrast the structural differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA. |
| During Meiosis I, what event ensures that daughter cells are haploid? | How does the chemical structure of a ribosome reflect its function? |
| What is the phenotypic ratio expected from a dihybrid cross (AaBb x AaBb) following Mendelian genetics? | Explain how a frameshift mutation differs from a point mutation in terms of protein synthesis. |
| As a cell grows, its volume increases faster than its surface area. If the ratio is too low, the membrane cannot transport enough nutrients in or waste out fast enough to support the cell's internal volume. | When an action potential reaches the axon terminal, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft, which then bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell membrane to propagate the signal. |
| Prokaryotic DNA is typically a single circular molecule found in the nucleoid region and lacks histones. Eukaryotic DNA is linear, organized into multiple chromosomes, and wrapped around histones within a nucleus. | Protease inhibitors would prevent lysosomal enzymes from breaking down proteins, leading to a toxic accumulation of waste products and cellular dysfunction. |
| The ribosome consists of two subunits made of rRNA and proteins; it provides the site for mRNA to bind and catalog three sites (A, P, E) for tRNA to facilitate peptide bond formation. | The separation of homologous chromosome pairs (anaphase I) ensures that each daughter cell receives only one chromosome from each pair, reducing the chromosome count by half. |
| A point mutation changes a single nucleotide (potentially changing one amino acid). A frameshift mutation (insertion or deletion) shifts the entire reading frame, altering every subsequent amino acid and usually rendering the protein nonfunctional. | A 9:3:3:1 ratio (9 dominant/dominant, 3 dominant/recessive, 3 recessive/dominant, 1 recessive/recessive). |
| In a pedigree, if a trait skips generations and affects both males and females equally, what is the likely mode of inheritance? | Why is genetic drift more impactful in smaller populations? |
| Define 'fitness' in an evolutionary context. | How does sexual selection act as a mechanism of evolution? |
| What is the difference between a food chain and a food web? | How do decomposers contribute to the cycling of matter in an ecosystem? |
| Describe 'parasitism' in terms of organism interaction. | Explain the role of the endocrine system in long-distance cell signaling. |
| In small populations, chance events can cause drastic changes in allele frequencies more easily because each individual represents a larger percentage of the total gene pool. | Autosomal recessive. |
| Individuals with certain inherited traits are more likely than others to obtain mates, leading to the evolution of traits that may not aid survival but increase reproductive success (e.g., peacock feathers). | Fitness is the measure of an individual's ability to survive and reproduce, specifically the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation. |
| Decomposers break down dead organic matter and waste, returning essential nutrients (like nitrogen and phosphorus) to the soil or water to be reused by producers. | A food chain shows a single linear path of energy flow (e.g., grass -> cow -> human). A food web is a complex network of many interconnected food chains, representing all feeding relationships in an ecosystem. |
| The endocrine system uses glands to secrete hormones into the bloodstream; these chemical messengers travel throughout the body to reach target cells with specific receptors to elicit a response. | A +/- relationship where one organism (the parasite) derives nourishment from another organism (the host), which is harmed in the process but usually not killed immediately. |
| What is the functional unit of the muscular system, and how does it contract? | How does the structure of the small intestine maximize nutrient absorption? |
| What occurs during the 'S phase' of the cell cycle, and why is it critical? | If a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, what will happen to its turgor pressure? |
| How does the enzyme-substrate complex lower activation energy? | |
| The inner wall is highly folded into villi and microvilli (the brush border), which exponentially increases the surface area for the diffusion and active transport of nutrients into the blood. | The sarcomere; it contracts via the sliding filament model, where actin and myosin filaments slide past each other, shortening the sarcomere without the filaments themselves changing length. |
| Water will leave the cell by osmosis, causing the central vacuole to shrink and the plasma membrane to pull away from the cell wall (plasmolysis), resulting in a loss of turgor pressure. | DNA synthesis/replication occurs; it is critical because it ensures that each daughter cell receives a complete and identical set of genetic information after division. |
| The enzyme binds to the substrate at the active site, inducing a conformational change that stresses chemical bonds or aligns reactants in a way that facilitates the reaction more easily. | |