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| How do structuralism and functionalism differ in their approach to studying the human mind? | In the context of the biopsychosocial approach, how does the sociocultural perspective explain human behavior? |
| What is the primary function of the myelin sheath in neural transmission, and what happens if it degenerates? | Differentiate between the functions of the Agonist and Antagonist drugs at the synapse. |
| Which brain structure acts as the sensory relay station, and which sense is the only one to bypass it? | Explain the significance of Broca's area vs. Wernicke's area in the left hemisphere. |
| How did Michael Gazzaniga's split-brain research demonstrate hemispheric specialization? | Define Weber's Law in the context of Difference Thresholds (JND). |
| It examines how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures, emphasizing the influence of social norms, cultural expectations, and group dynamics. | Structuralism (Wundt/Titchener) used introspection to break down consciousness into its basic elements, while functionalism (James) focused on how mental processes help humans adapt to their environments. |
| Agonists mimic or increase the effect of a neurotransmitter (e.g., morphine for endorphins), while Antagonists block the receptor sites to inhibit the neurotransmitter's effect (e.g., Curare for acetylcholine). | The myelin sheath insulates the axon and increases the speed of neural impulses; its degeneration is a primary factor in Multiple Sclerosis, leading to slowed muscle control. |
| Broca's area (frontal lobe) is responsible for speech production; Wernicke's area (temporal lobe) is responsible for language comprehension and meaningful expression. | The Thalamus receives all sensory information except for olfaction (smell), which travels directly to the olfactory bulb near the limbic system. |
| It states that for a person to perceive a difference between two stimuli, they must differ by a constant minimum percentage (proportion) rather than a constant amount. | By testing patients with severed corpora callosa, he showed the left hemisphere dominates language and logic, while the right hemisphere excels in spatial tasks and facial recognition. |
| Explain the difference between Top-Down and Bottom-Up processing. | Which Gestalt principle explains why we perceive a series of individual frames in a movie as continuous movement? |
| How does Signal Detection Theory explain why a mother might wake up to her baby's whimper but sleep through a loud siren? | In Pavlov’s classical conditioning, what makes a stimulus 'conditioned'? |
| How does Negative Reinforcement differ from Positive Punishment? | Identify the reinforcement schedule that is most resistant to extinction (e.g., slot machines). |
| What did Edward Tolman’s research on 'latent learning' conclude about the role of reinforcement? | Describe Albert Bandura's 'Bobo Doll' experiment findings regarding observational learning. |
| The Phi Phenomenon (or stroboscopic movement), which is related to the principle of continuity and how the brain organizes movement stimuli. | Bottom-up processing starts with sensory receptors and works up to integration (data-driven); top-down processing uses prior knowledge and expectations to interpret sensory info (concept-driven). |
| A stimulus becomes 'conditioned' (CS) when it was previously neutral (NS) but, after repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), it now elicits a response (CR) on its own. | It suggests detection depends not just on stimulus intensity but on the individual's psychological state, expectations, experiences, and level of fatigue. |
| Variable-Ratio Schedule, where reinforcement is provided after an unpredictable number of responses. | Negative Reinforcement increases a behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus; Positive Punishment decreases a behavior by adding an unpleasant stimulus. |
| Children who observed adults acting aggressively toward the doll were significantly more likely to imitate those exact behaviors, especially if the model was rewarded or not punished. | It demonstrated that learning can occur without immediate reinforcement, as rats created 'cognitive maps' of mazes that were only expressed once a reward was introduced. |
| How does State-Dependent Memory assist in the retrieval of information? | Explain the difference between Proactive and Retroactive Interference. |
| Define the 'Availability Heuristic' and provide an example of its impact on judgment. | What is Noam Chomsky's theory regarding a Language Acquisition Device (LAD)? |
| Differentiate between Fluid Intelligence and Crystallized Intelligence as we age. | According to Jean Piaget, what cognitive milestone is achieved during the Sensorimotor stage? |
| How does Erik Erikson’s 'Identity vs. Role Confusion' stage characterize adolescence? | In Mary Ainsworth's 'Strange Situation,' what behavior characterizes a 'Secure Attachment'? |
| Proactive interference occurs when old information blocks the recall of new information; Retroactive interference occurs when new information blocks the recall of old information. | It suggests we retrieve information better when we are in the same physiological or emotional state as we were during the encoding of that information. |
| He argued that humans have an innate, biological predisposition to learn language and that all languages share a 'universal grammar.' | It is estimating the likelihood of events based on their 'availability' in memory; e.g., fearing a shark attack more than a car accident because shark attacks are more vivid/memorable in media. |
| Object Permanence: the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived. | Fluid Intelligence (abstract reasoning and speed) tends to decrease in late adulthood, while Crystallized Intelligence (accumulated knowledge and verbal skills) increases. |
| The infant explores the room when the mother is present, shows distress when she leaves, and is easily comforted and seeks contact upon her return. | Teens work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are. |
| What is the primary focus of Kohlberg's Postconventional level of moral development? | How does Harry Harlow’s research with rhesus monkeys challenge the idea that attachment is based on nourishment? |
| Explain the 'Yerkes-Dodson Law' regarding arousal and performance. | Contrast the James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories of emotion. |
| What are the components of the 'Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory' of emotion? | In Freud’s personality theory, what is the role of the 'Ego' in relation to the 'Id' and 'Superego'? |
| Define 'Reaction Formation' as a defense mechanism. | What are the 'Big Five' (CANOE) personality traits in trait theory? |
| It showed that monkeys preferred the cloth 'mother' (contact comfort) over the wire 'mother' that provided milk, proving emotional security is vital for attachment. | Mortal actions are judged based on self-defined ethical principles and universal justice rather than social rules or personal gain. |
| James-Lange argues that physiological arousal causes the emotion; Cannon-Bard argues that arousal and the emotional experience happen simultaneously and independently. | It suggests that performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point; difficult tasks require lower arousal for best performance, while easy tasks require higher arousal. |
| The Ego operates on the 'reality principle,' acting as a mediator to satisfy the Id’s impulsive desires in socially acceptable ways dictated by the Superego. | Physical arousal and a cognitive label; we must consciously interpret the arousal to experience a specific emotion. |
| Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism (emotional stability), Openness, and Extraversion. | Switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites; for example, being overly friendly to someone you intensely dislike. |
| How does Carl Rogers define 'Unconditional Positive Regard' in Humanistic psychology? | What is the defining characteristic of 'Learned Helplessness' according to Martin Seligman? |
| Differentiate between Obsessions and Compulsions in OCD. | What characterizes the 'Negative Symptoms' of Schizophrenia? |
| How does Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) approach the treatment of psychological disorders? | What is the primary mechanism of SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors)? |
| In Aaron Beck’s cognitive therapy, what is the 'Cognitive Triad' in depression? | Define the 'Fundamental Attribution Error'. |
| The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events, often linked to depression. | An attitude of total acceptance toward another person, which Rogers believed was essential for self-actualization and a healthy self-concept. |
| The absence of appropriate behaviors, such as flat affect (expressionless face), alogia (poverty of speech), and avolition (lack of motivation). | Obsessions are repetitive, intrusive thoughts; Compulsions are repetitive, ritualistic behaviors performed to reduce the anxiety caused by the obsessions. |
| They block the reabsorption (reuptake) of serotonin in the synaptic cleft, making more serotonin available to the postsynaptic neuron to improve mood. | It aims to alter the way people think (challenging irrational beliefs) AND the way they act (behavior modification). |
| The tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition. | The tendency for depressed individuals to have negative thoughts about themselves, their world/experiences, and their future. |
| How did Solomon Asch demonstrate the power of 'Conformity'? | What was the primary finding of Stanley Milgram’s obedience study? |
| Explain 'Cognitive Dissonance' and how people typically resolve it. | What is 'Group Polarization'? |
| Define 'Deindividuation' and provide a situational example. | What does 'The Bystander Effect' suggest about the likelihood of receiving help in a crowd? |
| Identify the 'Mere Exposure Effect'. | What is the difference between Prejudice and Discrimination? |
| A surprisingly high percentage of participants (65%) were willing to obey an authority figure's instructions to deliver seemingly lethal electric shocks to a learner. | In his line-judging study, he showed that individuals would often provide a clearly wrong answer to match the group consensus, even when the truth was obvious. |
| The enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group; if a group is like-minded, discussion makes their opinions more extreme. | The tension experienced when attitudes and actions clash; people resolve it by changing their attitudes to align with their behaviors. |
| The probability of help decreases as the number of bystanders increases because of the 'diffusion of responsibility'—each person feels less personally accountable. | The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity (e.g., rioting or cyberbullying). |
| Prejudice is an unjustifiable (usually negative) attitude toward a group; Discrimination is the unjustifiable negative behavior toward that group. | The phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases our liking of them (familiarity breeds fondness). |
| How did Philip Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment illustrate the power of 'Roles'? | What is the 'Self-Fulfilling Prophecy' in social psychology? |
| A belief that leads to its own fulfillment; when our expectations of others cause us to act in ways that make those others confirm our expectations. | It showed that otherwise healthy students quickly internalized the assigned roles of 'guard' or 'prisoner,' leading to abusive behavior and psychological breakdown. |